In: Biology
Based on the article:
Question: Write a short description of the possible functions of lipid droplets.
"Expanding the roles for Lipid droplets."
Lipid droplets are the intracellular sites for neutral lipid storage. They are critical for lipid metabolism and
energy homeostasis, and their dysfunction has been linked to many diseases. Accumulating evidence suggests
that the roles lipid droplets play in biology are significantly broader than previously anticipated. Lipid
droplets are the source of molecules important in the nucleus: they can sequester transcription factors and
chromatin components and generate the lipid ligands for certain nuclear receptors. Lipid droplets have also
emerged as important nodes for fatty acid trafficking, both inside the cell and between cells. In immunity, new
roles for droplets, not directly linked to lipidmetabolism, have been uncovered, with evidence that they act as
assembly platforms for specific viruses and as reservoirs for proteins that fight intracellular pathogens. Until
recently, knowledge about droplets in the nervous system has been minimal, but now there aremultiple links
between lipid droplets and neurodegeneration: many candidate genes for hereditary spastic paraplegia also
have central roles in lipid-droplet formation and maintenance, and mitochondrial dysfunction in neurons can
lead to transient accumulation of lipid droplets in neighboring glial cells, an event thatmay, in turn, contribute
to neuronal damage. As the cell biology and biochemistry of lipid droplets become increasingly well understood,
the next few years should yield many new mechanistic insights into these novel functions of lipid
droplets.
Introduction
Lipid droplets are the sites where cells store neutral lipids, such
as triglycerides, steryl esters, and retinyl esters [1–3]. These
stored lipids can then be used in times of need to generate
energy, membrane components, and signaling lipids. Impairment
of the machinery that makes or degrades lipid droplets
has severe physiological consequences [1,4–6], demonstrating
that lipid droplets play central roles in cellular and organismal
energy homeostasis, in particular, and overall lipid metabolism
in general.
Lipid droplets also allow cells to safely sequester otherwise
toxic lipids. For example, as amphipathic molecules, overabundant
fatty acids can severely compromise membrane integrity.
Once turned into triglycerides and incorporated into lipid droplets
(Figure 1A), they are relatively inert, stable, and harmless.
This protective function is probably the reason for the abundant
accumulation of lipid droplets in many disease states characterized
by aberrant lipid supply and metabolism, such as obesity,
atherosclerosis, and fatty liver disease [1,6,7].
Lipid droplets are particularly important in tissues specialized
for energy storage or lipid turnover, such as adipose tissue,
the liver, and the intestine [2,3,8], yet they also accumulate in
skeletal muscle, the adrenal cortex, macrophages, and mammary
glands [1]. They control lipid signaling in immune cells
and are the targets of attack by pathogens [9]. Finally, they
have been observed in most cell types and occur throughout
the animal kingdom, in plants, and in unicellular organisms.
Recently, it has become apparent that lipid droplets play even
broader cellular roles than previously appreciated. For example,
they modulate the availability of proteins and signaling lipids in
the nucleus, act as hubs for fatty acid trafficking, are used by
viruses as assembly platforms, and their dysfunction in neurons
and glia may lead to neurodegeneration. This review summarizes
key recent findings into these emerging roles of lipid droplets,
with the aim of sharing these exciting developments with researchers
beyond the lipid-droplet field. Lipid droplets are still
relatively understudied organelles and, given the versatile functions
already revealed, it seems likely that further roles in new
areas of biology will be discovered.
Some Basic Concepts in Lipid-Droplet Biology
In the last few years, there has been an explosive growth in our
understanding of the structure, biogenesis, and turnover of lipid
droplets, which have been extensively covered in many excellent
recent reviews [1,5,10–15]. Among cellular organelles, lipid
droplets have a unique structure (Figure 1A): a central core of
hydrophobic (neutral) lipids is surrounded by a single layer of
amphipathic lipids and proteins (reminiscent of half a membrane
bilayer). The triglycerides in the hydrophobic core are generated
by an elaborate biosynthetic pathway (for a summary, see [10]),
with the final step being catalyzed by the acyl-CoA:diacylglycerol
acyltransferases DGAT1 and DGAT2 (Figure 1A), converting
diacylyglycerol (DAG) and fatty acids, first activated to
acyl-CoA, into triglycerides. Both enzymes are located in the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), where triglycerides accumulate at
privileged sites that represent nascent lipid droplets [16]; mature
lipid droplets are generated by continuous growth of these
structures and finally become distinct from the ER, likely via aprocess resembling budding [10,13]. DGAT2 is only inserted
into one leaflet of the ER membrane and can therefore diffuse
onto the surface of lipid droplets, promoting triglyceride synthesis
and continued droplet growth locally [17]. The hydrophobic
core can also contain steryl esters, the synthesis of which is
catalyzed by acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferases. Depending
on cell type and conditions, steryl esters or triglycerides may
predominate.
Breakdown of the droplet triglycerides can occur by two
distinct pathways. Cytoplasmic triglyceride lipases bound to
the surface of lipid droplets hydrolyze triglycerides to DAG and
fatty acids. DAG can be further broken down, in two steps, into
fatty acids and glycerol (Figure 1C). In adipose tissue and
many other cells, the bulk of triglyceride hydrolysis is catalyzed
by a single lipase, adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL) [5]. Lipid
droplets can also be turned over by autophagy (Figure 1C):
like other cellular organelles, lipid droplets are taken up by autophagosomes,
which fuse with lysosomes to form autolysosomes.
The hydrolytic enzymes delivered from lysosomes then
break down the autophagosome content; triglycerides, in particular,
are predominantly hydrolyzed by lysosomal acid lipase
(LAL) [5]. Discovered in hepatocytes [18], autophagy of lipid
droplets (‘lipophagy’) appears to make varied contributions to
triglyceride breakdown, depending on cell type and physiological
conditions [5].
Lipid Droplets as Modulators of Nuclear Functions
Lipid droplets arise from the ER and typically reside in the cytoplasm,
often at considerable distance from the nucleus. Nevertheless,
recent studies have uncovered intimate connections
between lipid droplets and nuclear events. There is emerging
evidence for a nuclear population of lipid droplets, which has
been proposed to directly modulate lipid metabolism in the nucleus.
In addition, lipid droplets in the cytoplasm can sequester
transcription factors, enzymes, and chromatin components —
and possibly many other proteins—and thus control their availability
in the nucleus.
Nuclear Lipid Droplets
Two different groups have reported the presence of lipid droplets
inside nuclei [19,20]. Using dyes specific for neutral lipids, small
spherical structures were identified in the nuclei of cultured cells
as well as in biochemically isolated nuclei [20]. Electron microscopy
of serial sections revealed that at least some of these
structures truly reside inside the nuclear compartment [19].
Biochemical fractionation suggests that these structures differ
in their lipid composition from the lipid droplets in the cytoplasm
[20]; however, they resemble cytoplasmic lipid droplets in their
morphology and in the presence of neutral lipids and were thus
named ‘nuclear lipid droplets’. It is not yet known how these lipid
droplets arise, what proteins they associate with, or what their
functional significance is. However, it is an intriguing possibility
that they contribute to nuclear lipid homeostasis and locally
modulate the availability of signaling lipids.
Exchange of Proteins between Lipid Droplets and Nuclei
Cytoplasmic lipid droplets can also profoundly affect nuclear
events. For example, lipid droplets have been implicated in suppressing
the activity of a transcription factor by keeping it out of
the nucleus [21]. The lipid-droplet protein Fsp27, also known as
CIDEC, is expressed in adipocytes and promotes fusion between
droplets, causing the formation of a single droplet per
cell [22,23]. A yeast two-hybrid screen revealed the transcription
factor NFAT5 (nuclear factor of activated T cells 5) as a potential
Fsp27 interaction partner. NFAT5 is cytoplasmic under hypotonic
conditions and translocates to the nucleus upon hypertonic
stress to activate osmoprotective genes [24]. The physical interaction
between Fsp27 and NFAT5 was confirmed in vivo, and
Fsp27 knockdown in adipocytes led to expression of NFAT5
target genes even in the absence of hypertonic stress [21]. To
examine the underlying mechanism, Fsp27 was ectopically expressed
in the heterologous HEK293 cell line; under these conditions,
Fsp27 was observed broadly throughout the cytoplasm.
Fsp27 overexpression reduced the amount of nuclear NFAT5, as
determined both by imaging and biochemistry, and blunted the
expression of NFAT5 target genes when cells were exposed to
hypertonic stress [21]. These results suggest that Fsp27 is able
to sequester NFAT5 in the cytoplasm and interferes with its
nuclear trafficking; since endogenous Fsp27 is associated with
lipid droplets in adipocytes, this interaction would retain
NFAT5 at the droplet surface (Figure 2A), something that remains
to be demonstrated directly. It will be interesting to determinewhether the interaction between Fsp27 and NFAT5 is regulated,
for example, by signaling pathways controlling lipolysis.
In Drosophila embryos, lipid droplets are associated with large
amounts of specific histones [25] via the histone anchor Jabba
[26]. This association is first detected during oogenesis and
makes it possible for females to build up massive histone stores
in the developing eggs (Figure 2B,C). Wild-type embryos contain
enough excess histones for thousands of diploid nuclei, whereas
mutants lacking Jabba have drastically reduced histone stores
[26]; indirect evidence suggests that extranuclear histones not
bound to lipid droplets are degraded. Transplantation experiments
revealed that in the embryo droplet-bound histones
can transfer to nuclei [25] and presumably support chromatin
assembly. Surprisingly, embryos lacking this droplet-bound histone
supply develop largely normally [26,27]. This is possible
because of the intricate regulation of histone metabolism in early
embryos (reviewed in [28]), which also contain abundant levels of
histone messages deposited during oogenesis. When new synthesis
of histones in the embryo is even mildly impaired, Jabba
mutants cannot sustain development and die very early [26].
Thus, in this case, lipid droplets sequester a nuclear protein for
long-term storage. This sequestration allows the organism to
build up histone stores during oogenesis and keep them available
for when they are needed later for chromatin assembly
(Figure 2C).
Lipid droplets of early Drosophila embryos also appear
to affect histone metabolism in the short term, by buffering
the histone supply [27]. When droplets are transplanted
between embryos, the donor droplets can bind histones
from the recipient embryo, suggesting that histones can be
loaded onto droplets even in embryos. In Jabba mutants,
the synthesis of histone H2A and its variant H2Av are
imbalanced, and H2Av overaccumulates in the nuclei, an
event linked to DNA damage [27]. This nuclear overaccumulation
does not occur in wild-type embryos, presumably because
here lipid droplets can trap histones produced in excess and
prevent their unregulated entry into nuclei. Whether other
species use similar droplet-based histone buffering remains
to be determined, although histones have also been detected
on lipid droplets in housefly embryos, rat sebocytes, and
mouse oocytes [25,29,30]
The enzyme CCT1 also displays dramatic exchange between
lipid droplets and nuclei. CCT1 is one of two isoforms of
CTP:phosphocholine cytidylyltransferase, an enzyme that catalyzes
the rate-limiting step in the synthesis of the phospholipid
phosphatidylcholine. In cultured fly cells, CCT1 is usually present
in the nucleus, but, under conditions in which cells synthesize
new triglycerides and expand the hydrophobic core of droplets,
CCT1 accumulates at the droplet surface [31,32] (Figure 2D). The
presence at the droplet surface is critical to expand the droplet
surface in concert with growth of the core: droplet binding activates
the enzyme and thus leads to an increase in the cellular
phosphatidylcholine supply. Whether CCT1’s presence in the
nucleus in the basal state is functionally important remains unclear.
Nuclear accumulation is apparently not a mechanism to
prevent access to the droplet surface: fluorescence recovery
after photobleaching (FRAP) experiments revealed that CCT1
is not immobilized inside nuclei, but rapidly exchanges with a
cytoplasmic pool. And overexpression of CCT2, an isoform
exchanging between the cytoplasm and droplets, can fully
rescue the effect of CCT1 depletion on droplet growth [31].
High nuclear accumulation and consequent low cytoplasmic
pools of CCT1 might possibly modulate the kinetics of relocalization
to droplets.
Prp19 is a subunit of the NineTeen Complex, which is involved
in a number of nuclear events, including spliceosome activation
and transcription elongation [33]. In mouse adipocytes, Prp19
was also found associated with lipid droplets, and Prp19 knockdown
resulted in reduced triglyceride accumulation [34]. It is not
clear whether this dual localization to lipid droplets and to thenucleus represents distinct functions of Prp19, or whether the
two populations are connected. Initial experiments with inhibitors
of nuclear export revealed no changes in overall intracellular
Prp19 distribution [34].
Modulation of Lipid Signaling
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are transcription
factors bound and activated by lipid ligands, including
fatty acids and their derivatives. In oxidative tissues, such as the
mammalian heart and liver, PPARa promotes the expression of
proteins involved in lipid homeostasis [35]. In principle, fatty
acids from exogenous sources or synthesized de novo might
activate PPARa directly. However, free fatty acids are typically
channeled, via activation to acyl-CoA, into specific metabolic
pathways [36] and thus are not readily available for signaling.
Studies in mice uncovered that PPARa signaling is severely
compromised in the hearts of animals lacking ATGL [37]. Given
that lack of ATGL function in the heart causes many profound
changes (such as massive lipid accumulation and mitochondrial
dysfunction), the effect on PPARa signaling might conceivably
be indirect. Yet pharmacological stimulation of the PPARa
pathway is sufficient to reverse these phenotypes, establishing
PPARa signaling as a primary defect in these mutant hearts
and suggesting a direct link between lipid droplets and PPARaactivation [37]. It was proposed that
ATGL-mediated triglyceride hydrolysis
generates the ligands for PPARa [37]
(Figure 3A). This pathway may be tissue
specific because liver-specific knockdown
of ATGL impaired the expression
of PPARa target genes in this tissue, but PPARa agonists failed
to reverse this effect [38].
Lipid Droplets as Hubs for Fatty Acid Trafficking
Lipid droplets act as a sink for overabundant fatty acids, and they
can release lipids when needed for energy production, synthesis
of membrane components, or signaling. It is becoming increasingly
apparent that lipid trafficking to and from droplets is highly
regulated in space (Figure 3A). Fatty acids from triglyceride hydrolysis
signal to nuclear receptors (as discussed above); fatty
acids released during autophagy are shuttled through lipid droplets,
as a way station before import into mitochondria for ATP
production; production of steroid hormones in flies requires lipid
exchange between the ER, lipid droplets, and mitochondria; and
within a population of cells, high accumulation of droplets in a
subset of cells has been proposed to protect the rest of the cells
from fatty acid overload.
Lipid Trafficking between Lipid Droplets and
Mitochondria
In starved mammalian cells, fatty acids fuel ATP production, via
b-oxidation in mitochondria. These fatty acids could be derived
from triglycerides (Figure 1B,C) or from various membranous
organelles. To follow the flux of fatty acids through variouscompartments, mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) were
allowed to incorporate fluorescently labeled lipids into either lipid
droplets or membranes, and their fate during starvation was
monitored by imaging and biochemistry [39]. Fatty acids present
as triglycerides in lipid droplets moved to mitochondria fairly
quickly and were readily broken down. When ATGL (Figure 1B)
was knocked down, transfer of fatty acids was dramatically
reduced and mitochondrial oxygen consumption rates dropped.
Under the starvation conditions employed, lipophagy (Figure 1C)
was not induced and autophagy made no detectable contribution
to the transfer of fatty acids from droplets to mitochondria
or to mitochondrial oxygen consumption rates.
The rapid relocalization of fatty acids to mitochondria is presumably
accomplished by direct transfer. Lipid droplets and
mitochondria indeed display close physical associations [40–
42], and direct channeling of fatty acids from their site of release
(droplets) to the site of consumption (mitochondria) would minimize
the risk of toxic effects elsewhere, such as disruption of
cellular membranes or inappropriate nuclear signaling.
Curiously, during starvation, the number and size of lipid droplets
increased and total cellular triglyceride levels went up [39].
Using fluorescently labeled phospholipids and inhibition of
autophagy pathways, this effect was traced to autophagic
breakdown of membranous organelles. Presumably, fatty acids
from phospholipid breakdown in autolysosomes are employed
to replenish triglyceride stores in droplets upon starvation
(Figure 3A).
Mitochondria can be remodeled by fusion and fission [43],
allowing them to form highly interconnected networks or individual
fragments. In starved cells, mitochondria were highly fused, a
state that is apparently critical for efficient fatty acid import: usually
labeled fatty acids from lipid droplets are homogenously
distributed throughout the mitochondria, but when mitochondria
were fragmented, the label was distributed unevenly [39]. As a
result, fatty acids could not be metabolized as efficiently;
although cells with either fused or fragmented mitochondria upregulate
b-oxidation upon starvation, only those with fused mitochondria
were able to maintain these levels of b-oxidation. For
cells with fragmented mitochondria, levels of b oxidation and,
as a result, total mitochondrial respiration, dropped off with
time, presumably because not all mitochondria had a sufficient
supply of fatty acids (Figure 3B). The likely reason is that there
are many fewer lipid droplets than mitochondrial fragments,
and that only the mitochondria in direct physical contact with
lipid droplets can take up fatty acids efficiently. In fused mitochondria,
those fatty acids can diffuse through the entire
network. In support of this interpretation, when glutamine was
used as an alternative fuel, the fusion state of the mitochondria
did not matter; as glutamine diffuses through the cytoplasm,
its import into mitochondria is not restricted to a limited number
of sites, unlike the supply of fatty acids from lipid droplets. Presumably
because an oversupply of unmetabolized fatty acids is
dangerous, fatty acids were re-exported from the mitochondria,
and either accumulated back in lipid droplets or were released
from the cells into the extracellular space [39].
Efficiency of lipid exchange between mitochondria, ER, and
lipid droplets may also underlie a recent observation that
promotion of mitochondrial fusion is important for lipid-droplet
formation and steroid signaling in Drosophila. Mitochondrial
associated regulatory factor (Marf), the fly ortholog of mammalian
mitofusins, is a small GTPase that promotes fusion of
the outer mitochondrial membrane; thus, loss of Marf leads to
small, round mitochondria [44]. Marf-deficient flies show a
particularly dramatic phenotype in the ring gland, an endocrine
tissue responsible for hormone secretion [45]: mitochondrial
morphology is altered, the ER is fragmented, and lipid-droplet
number is dramatically reduced [44]. Ring gland lipid droplets
receive sterols from the ER and store them as steryl esters;
these, in turn, are the precursors for the production of the steroid
hormone ecdysone in the mitochondrial matrix. Efficient storage
and turnover of steryl esters therefore presumably requires intimate
contacts between the three organelles; in Marf mutants
the contacts between all three organelles were severely reduced
[44]. Lack of Marf in the ring gland also greatly impairs ecdysone
production, with dramatic organism-wide consequences [44].
Mitochondria may not be the only organelle for which close
contacts with lipid droplets promote efficient transfer of fatty
acids. Breakdown of fatty acids is not restricted to mitochondria,
but can also occur in peroxisomes. In the yeast Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, b-oxidation is even entirely restricted to peroxisomes.
Here, lipid droplets and peroxisomes display intimate physical
connections, which have been proposed to promote efficient
coupling of triglyceride breakdown with peroxisomal fatty acid
oxidation [46].
Lipid-Droplet Specialization across a Cell Population
The role of lipid droplets as buffers for fatty acid availability may
even extend to lipid exchange between cells in the same tissue.
A recent study identified a surprising heterogeneity in lipiddroplet
content in hepatocytes [47]: in mouse liver, some cells
have substantially larger numbers of lipid droplets than neighboring
cells (Figure 3C); this variability is especially apparent
under conditions of high overall lipid storage in the liver. Similar
variability was observed in primary hepatocytes in culture and
with a cultured cell line of liver origin (AML12), suggesting that
it is due to cell-intrinsic properties, rather than a reflection of
overall tissue structure.
Such heterogeneity might arise if some cells have acquiredmutations in lipid metabolism. However, a cell sorting strategy
demonstrated that heterogeneity is reversible and appears to
be a population property. After growth on fatty-acid-rich media,
cells were separated by flow cytometry into a low-lipid and a
high-lipid subpopulation. After culture in standard media to promote
breakdown of the stored lipids, the two populations were
again grown under fatty-acid-rich conditions. Remarkably,
both cultures showed the same broad distribution in lipid content.
Inhibitor studies indicate that heterogeneity arises from
fluctuations in biochemical networks controlling lipolysis, fatty
acid oxidation, and protein synthesis.
At the level of a whole organism, heterogeneity of lipid-droplet
content is very common. Many animals have adipose tissues
specialized for storing lipids. It was proposed that heterogeneity
within a single cell population similarly sets aside a subpopulation
of cells that collects lipids particularly well, stores them,
and releases them to their neighbors when needed [47]. To
test this idea, high-lipid cells were isolated in which lipid droplets
had accumulated fluorescently labeled fatty acids. After co-culture
with low-lipid cells (marked with a different fluorescent dye
to distinguish the two original populations), the high-lipid grouphad lost — and the low-lipid group had gained — some of the
labeled fatty acids. Thus, the high-lipid cells can indeed supply
lipids to their neighbors (Figure 3D).
But what is the point of setting aside a subpopulation of cells
with especially high lipid stores if — in the long run — the lipids
are presumably needed equally across cells? One possibility
has to do with the fact that overaccumulation of free fatty acids
is dangerous, both because of disruption of membranes and
because of toxic metabolites generated by fatty acid breakdown.
The high-lipid subpopulation indeed showed higher levels
of oxidative damage, as seen by levels of reactive oxygen species
(ROS; Figure 3C). Importantly, when fluorescently marked
low-lipid cells were co-cultured with either low-lipid or high-lipid
cells (unmarked) and challenged with fatty-acid-rich media, the
marked cells displayed lower ROS levels in the presence of
high-lipid cells. Thus, the presence of high-lipid cells protected
their low-lipid neighbors. High-lipid cells may remove fatty acids
more efficiently from the media, and thus the flux of free fatty
acids into the low-lipid cells is reduced. Remarkably, in the coculture
experiment with high-lipid cells, ROS levels were not
only reduced for the marked low-lipid cells, but also for the population
as a whole.
Although the detailed mechanisms underlying these protective
effects remain to be worked out, the reported experiments
nicely demonstrate a novel strategy, namely heterogeneity in
lipid-droplet accumulation, to alleviate risks from overabundance
of lipids. By accumulating more lipid droplets and more
ROS, the high-lipid subpopulation reduces the overall risk of lipotoxicity.
It is not yet clear how the high-lipid population is able to
handle its increased risk: these cells may induce specific protective
mechanisms, or they might repair their damage during the
time when they find themselves in the low-lipid state (which
will occur sooner or later, due to the stochastic nature of the
heterogeneity). Since heterogeneity has been observed in
cultured cells of various origins [47], this protective strategy
may be employed not just by hepatocytes, but more generally
in other cell types.
Lipid Droplets and the Fight against Pathogens
It has been long known that lipid droplets play important roles in
the immune system. They are sites of synthesis of eicosanoids,
signaling lipids important for inflammation, host defense against
pathogens, and cancer [48]. Various pathogens have, in turn,
evolved strategies to tap into the lipid droplets of the host
to ensure a sufficient lipid supply [49,50]. Recent years have
uncovered how certain viruses appropriate lipid droplets as
assembly platforms and how cells use lipid droplets in novel
ways to fight back.
Lipid Droplets and Viral Assembly
Infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a global public health
threat and can lead to liver cirrhosis and liver cancer [51]. For
part of its life cycle, HCV crucially depends on lipid droplets
(see [52,53] for recent reviews): after infection, two newly expressed
viral proteins transiently accumulate on lipid droplets:
core protein, which is the major structural protein of the virus,
and NS5A, a regulator of viral replication. Droplet-bound viral
proteins then interact with the sites of viral RNA replication, a
process facilitated by the droplet-localized Rab18 [54] and
by dynein-mediated intracellular relocalization of lipid droplets
[55]. For the final maturation, the virus hijacks the pathway
responsible for secretion of the very-low-density lipoprotein
(VLDL) particles, and virions are released into the extracellular
space as low-density lipoviroparticles [56], whose lipids may
ultimately be derived from lipid droplets. HCV is not unique in
its use of lipid droplets; several other viruses assemble with
the help of lipid droplets [57,58].
Droplet accumulation is a necessary step for virus maturation;
if the interaction between core protein and lipid droplets is disrupted,
either with mutations in core protein or via pharmacological
approaches, core protein stability is greatly reduced and
virion assembly is impaired [59,60]. Thus, preventing the recruitment
of viral proteins to droplets is an attractive target for disrupting
the viral life cycle. Droplet targeting requires cis-acting
sequence motifs in both core protein and NS5A [61,62], but
also trans-acting host factors. In particular, DGAT1, one of the
two enzymes mediating triglyceride synthesis (Figure 1A), plays
a crucial role: DGAT1 binds to both NS5A and core protein,
and this interaction mediates recruitment of both proteins to
droplets and is required for efficient virion assembly [63,64].
Interestingly, inhibiting the enzymatic activity of DGAT1 is sufficient
to prevent droplet targeting of these proteins. Since
DGAT1 generates only a subset of lipid droplets (the others
depend on DGAT2; Figure 1A), it was proposed that DGAT1 concentrates
the viral proteins at the sites where it promotes lipiddroplet
formation and thus guides the viral proteins onto just
these lipid droplets [64] (Figure 4A).
Lipid Droplets as Stores for Antiviral and Antibacterial
Proteins
Viperin (which stands for virus inhibitory protein, ER associated,
interferon inducible) is an interferon-induced protein with broad
antiviral activity [65,66]. Viperin is targeted to the cytoplasmic
face of the ER and is also enriched around lipid droplets [62];
targeting to both locations is mediated by an amino-terminal
amphipathic a-helix [62]. Intriguingly, two of the viruses combatted
by viperin, HCV and Dengue virus, employ droplets for
their assembly. Using confocal microscopy and fluorescence
resonance energy transfer (FRET), viperin was shown to interact
with the HCV nonstructural protein NS5A at the droplet surface,
via its carboxy-terminal region [67]. This interaction as well as theamino-terminal droplet-targeting helix are required for viperin’s
antiviral activity against HCV [67]. For Dengue virus, in contrast,
while a physical interaction with the viral protein NS3 was important,
droplet binding was dispensable for the anti-viral effect [68].
The amino-terminal a-helix in viperin was also important to
restrict the replication of chikungunya virus, though presumably
through localization at the ER, rather than at lipid droplets [69].
Thus, at least in some cases, viperin apparently targets a
droplet-dependent step of viral replication and its enrichment
on the droplet surface is necessary for its activity (Figure 4A).
As discussed earlier, lipid droplets can be associated with histones.
This observation potentially has implications for immunity
since histones are increasingly recognized as antibacterial
agents [70,71]: in vitro, histones have broad antibacterial activity
[72], and histones present in extracellular secretions have been
reported to contribute to protection against bacterial pathogens
[73,74]. Analysis in Drosophila suggests that histones bound to
lipid droplets can similarly provide a defense against intracellular
bacterial invaders [75]. Droplets biochemically purified fromDrosophila embryos are associated with high levels of certain
histones [25] and are highly bactericidal in vitro [75]. A number
of independent approaches, including using histone antibodies
and mutations in the histone anchor Jabba [26], showed that
this killing activity of droplets was due to histones.
To test whether droplet-bound histones are protective in vivo,
wild-type and Jabba mutant embryos were injected with GFPlabeled
Escherichia coli; while bacterial numbers diminished in
the wild type, they dramatically increased in the mutants [75]
(Figure 4B). In the same injection assay, wild-type embryos
also showed significantly higher levels of survival when challenged
with a number of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
This new immune mechanism may also operate at other
developmental stages: when adult flies were infected with the
intracellular pathogen Listeria monocytogenes, Jabba mutants
were impaired in restricting bacterial titers and were killed
much more readily than wild-type flies [75]. Loading up lipid
droplets with histones to kill bacterial invaders may be a
conserved innate immunity mechanism, since when mice were
challenged with lipopolysaccharide — to mimic bacterial infections
— the levels of droplet-bound histone H1 increased in the
liver [75].
Lipid Droplets and the Nervous System
Lipid metabolism plays crucial roles in the nervous system, for
many membrane functions and signaling events [76–78]. Yet until
recently, there has been only sparse and unconnected information
on the role of lipid droplets in neurons and other cells
of the nervous system. For example, lipid droplets have been detected
in the axons of Aplysia neurons cultured in vitro [79] and in
cultured neurons and brain sections of Huntington’s disease
models [80]. There are also links between a-synuclein, a protein
whose dysfunction or overexpression can cause Parkinson’s
disease, and lipid droplets: a-synuclein has been reported to
bind to lipid droplets in vitro [81] and in cultured cells [82], and
overexpression in yeast promotes droplet accumulation [83],
but the relevance of these observations for a-synuclein’s in vivo
function and for neurodegeneration has yet to be explored. However,
recent papers have identified the presence of lipid droplets
in neurons and in glia under certain disease conditions and suggest
that disrupted lipid-droplet function can contribute to neurodegeneration.
Hereditary Spastic Paraplegias and Lipid Droplets
Hereditary spastic paraplegias (HSPs) are inherited disorders
characterized by motor-sensory axon degeneration, weakness
in lower extremities, and spasticity [84]. Mutations in over 50
loci can cause HSP, and the cellular functions of the encoded
proteins show a surprising heterogeneity. Recently, a number
of HSP candidate genes have been shown to have crucial roles
in lipid-droplet biology: atlastin, REEP1, seipin, spartin, spastin,
and kinesin-1. Atlastin mediates fusion of ER tubules and also
controls the size of lipid droplets [85]. REEP1 maintains the
high curvature of ER tubules and, when overexpressed together
with atlastin, increases lipid-droplet size [85,86]. Seipin, an integral
membrane protein at the ER–droplet junction, is important
for lipid-droplet formation and maintenance [87,88]. Spartin
localizes to lipid droplets, interacts with E3 ubiquitin ligases,
and modulates the turnover of lipid-droplet proteins [89–91];
spartin knockout mice have increased lipid-droplet numbers in
their adipose tissue [92]. Spastin is a microtubule-severing protein
that mediates remodeling of the cytoskeleton; in mammalian
cells, a particular spastin isoform harbors a lipid-droplet targeting
sequence, and depletion of spastin in Drosophila or
C. elegans alters lipid-droplet number and cellular triglyceride
content [93]. KIF5A encodes the microtubule motor kinesin-1;
the same motor powers the motion of lipid droplets in Drosophila
[94]. Finally, several of the HSP candidate genes encode enzymes
implicated in phospholipid or fatty acid metabolism
[95,96]; their dysfunction might therefore alter the supply or
composition of the lipids stored in lipid droplets. These observations
raise the intriguing possibility that aberrant lipid-droplet
biogenesis or function might contribute to axonal degeneration.
However, since all of these proteins also have functions unrelated
to lipid droplets (such as controlling ER structure or promoting
vesicle trafficking), the link between lipid droplets and
HSPs remains tentative.
A much more direct connection to lipid droplets has recently
emerged from the analysis of the HSP gene DDHD2 [97]. Patients
with mutations in DDHD2 exhibit very early onset of the disease
(<2 years) and are often intellectually disabled [98]. The DDHD2
gene is highly expressed in the brain and encodes a serine
hydrolase that displays phospholipase activity in vitro. To determine
its function in vivo, DDHD2 activity was abrogated genetically,
using knockout mice, as well as pharmacologically, withselective inhibitors [97]. In both cases, adults accumulated large
amounts of triglycerides in the brain and the spinal cord, but
there was little to no effect in other tissues; brain phospholipid
content was unchanged. These observations suggest that
DDHD2 has a specific function in triglyceride metabolism of
the central nervous system. It likely acts as a triglyceride lipase
since recombinant DDHD2 expressed in cultured cells displays
triglyceride hydrolase activity and, compared with wild type,
total triglyceride hydrolase activity is significantly reduced in
brain lysates of DDHD2 mutant mice [97]. Finally, the main triglyceride
hydrolase in the fat body of the moth Manduca sexta
shares extensive sequence homology with DDHD2 [99].
The brains of DDHD2 knockout mice displayed abundant lipid
droplets, while lipid droplets were only rarely detected in wildtype
brains [97]. They accumulated predominantly in neurons
and were present in cytoplasm, dendrites, and axons. The
DDHD2 knockout mice also exhibited deficits in motor coordination
and cognition [97], reminiscent of the defects in the human
patients [98]. Intriguingly, in the patients, cerebral magnetic resonance
spectroscopy revealed an abnormal spectrum, with a
peak characteristic of lipid accumulation [98], though it is not
yet known whether this peak represents triglycerides. While
the mechanisms that link droplet accumulation and neuronal
impairment remain obscure, one intriguing observation is that
in the DDHD2 knockout mice some of the large droplets
observed were associated with noticeable swellings of the
neuronal processes and thus might present obstacles to intracellular
trafficking in the relatively thin axons and dendrites.
Glial Lipid Droplets
Glial cells are non-neuronal cells that surround neurons and play
important supportive roles in the central and peripheral nervous
system. Lipid droplets have been observed in culture in primary
glia as well as in glia-derived cell lines [100,101]. When carnitine
palmitoyltransferase 2 (CPT2), a mitochondrial enzyme necessary
for b-oxidation of long-chain fatty acids, is abolished in flies,
massive amounts of triglycerides accumulate specifically in the
brain of adults; glial cells, but not neurons, accumulated abundant
lipid droplets [102]. This seems to be a cell-autonomouseffect because CPT2 is expressed predominantly
in glia and CPT2 expression
solely in glia is sufficient to reverse triglyceride
accumulation in the brain. Flies lacking
CPT2 have a dramatically reduced
lifespan, and glial-specific CPT2 expression
was able to partially rescue this
defect, indicating that triglyceride metabolism
in glia may make an important contribution to overall
organismal energy metabolism.
Lipid droplets can accumulate in glia also non-cell-autonomously,
in response to mitochondrial dysfunction in neighboring
neurons [103]. For a subset of Drosophila mutants known to
cause neurodegeneration in adult photoreceptors [104], abundant
lipid droplets transiently accumulate in the glial cells next
to photoreceptors, prior to or concomitant with the onset of
neurodegeneration. No droplets were observed in the wild type
or in the neurons of mutant animals [103] (Figure 5A,B). The
mutants that showed accumulation of droplets in glial cells all
affect mitochondrial function and, in particular, cause increased
levels of ROS. Elevated ROS are indeed critical for droplet formation
in glia because pharmacological or genetic reduction of
ROS prevented droplet accumulation. Lipid droplets were also
detected in glial cells in a mouse model of neurodegeneration
caused by mitochondrial dysfunction, suggesting an evolutionarily
conserved pathway.
How do ROS promote the accumulation of glial lipid droplets?
The full pathway has yet to be worked out, but activation of
c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) and sterol regulatory element
binding protein (SREBP) pathways are critical; JNK mediates
stress responses [105] and SREBP controls transcription of
many metabolic genes and, in particular, promotes lipogenesis
[106,107]. Although droplets accumulate in glia, the trigger for
accumulation originates in neurons: when the mitochondrial
genes identified were knocked down in glia, there was no effect;
knockdown only in neurons was sufficient to promote glial lipid
droplets. In addition, expression of an antioxidant enzyme or
knockdown of JNK solely in neurons was able to reduce glial
droplet accumulation. Thus, mitochondrial dysfunction and
elevated ROS in photoreceptors cause accumulation of lipid
droplets in glia in a non-cell-autonomous manner.
Damage to neurons resulting from mitochondrial dysfunction
therefore leads both to transient formation of lipid droplets in
glia and to neurodegeneration. Are these lipid droplets an ultimately
futile protective response, do they promote neurodegeneration,
or are they innocent bystanders? Activation of JNK orSREBP in neurons in the absence of ROS still leads to glial lipid
droplets, but not neurodegeneration [103]. Thus, glial lipid droplets
per se are not detrimental for neurons. The culprit might
be lipids damaged by ROS, given that the mutants leading to
neurodegeneration displayed dramatically elevated levels of
peroxidated lipids. Furthermore, expression of two different
lipases, the ATGL homolog Brummer or the LAL homolog Lip4
(Figure 1B,C), dramatically reduced both lipid-droplet accumulation
and the levels of peroxidated lipids and also delayed neurodegeneration
(Figure 5C) [103]. These observations strongly
suggest that neurodegeneration is driven by altered lipid metabolism,
although the exact role of lipid droplets remains to be
elucidated.
The fatal neurodegenerative disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
(ALS) has recently also been linked to lipid droplets.
A particular subtype of ALS is caused by mutations in the human
VAMP (vesicle-associated membrane protein)-associated protein
B (hVAPB). Equivalent mutations in the fly ortholog DVAP,
when ectopically expressed, lead to degeneration of fly photoreceptors.
In genetic screens for enhancers and suppressors of this
phenotype, one of the most represented functional categories
was proteins linked to lipid droplets, including proteins involved
in droplet biogenesis and droplet motility [108]. The proteins
such identified will provide a rich source for follow-up studies to
dissect how lipid droplets might impact neurodegeneration.
Perspective
The crucial roles of lipid droplets in energy homeostasis and lipid
metabolism have focused a lot of recent attention on these still
relatively understudied organelles. Yet the examples discussed
above show that lipid droplets play even broader roles and touch
on biological processes only loosely connected to their traditionally
studied functions.
In particular, lipid droplets contribute to protein trafficking and
protein maturation in the cell. They exchange proteins with the
nucleus, modulate protein stability, and allow concentrated
accumulation of antiviral and antibacterial proteins. We do not
know enough to judge whether these processes have independently
evolved and all just happen to take advantage of lipid
droplets or whether they are indicative of a general cellular
pathway of protein trafficking. Lipid droplets have been proposed
to act as general protein sequestration sites [109]; such
sequestration might modulate the ability of these proteins to
interact with binding partners, promote assembly of protein
complexes, store damaged proteins safely before degradation,
or allow moving droplets to deliver proteins [109,110]. As many
published lipid-droplet proteomes contain proteins from other
compartments, there are ample candidates for testing how widespread
protein sequestration on droplets is. For the verified examples,
much work needs to be carried out to understand how
the sequestered proteins are targeted to lipid droplets, whether
they are bound stably or dynamically, and how release from
droplets is controlled. And why are these proteins sequestered
on lipid droplets and not elsewhere in the cell? Is droplet localization,
say, of histones, just an accident of evolution, or do lipid
droplets provide a unique cellular niche?
The emerging roles of lipid droplets as hubs for fatty acid trafficking
(Figure 3) suggest that the pathways that fatty acids take
from and to lipid droplets are highly regulated. But, apart from
some insights into the importance of direct contacts between
lipid droplets and mitochondria [42], little is known about the
molecular mechanisms controlling this trafficking. For fatty
acid trafficking modulated by droplet heterogeneity between
cells (Figure 3C,D), there are intriguing hints that heterogeneity
is a regulatable property since the extent of heterogeneity is
different between cells of different origin [47], but the control
pathways remain to be worked out.
For lipid droplets in the nervous system, it is now established
that both neurons and glia can accumulate lipid droplets under
certain disease conditions. But what role they play under these
conditions and whether droplets are normally present in the nervous
system is far from clear. For example, in the fly models of
neurodegeneration (Figure 5), it was proposed that accumulation
of lipid droplets in glia promotes neurodegeneration, as long as
high ROS levels provide a second insult [103]. However, lipase
overexpression in glia only mildly delayed neurodegeneration,
whereas lipase overexpression in neurons, where no droplets
were detected, had a much stronger protective effect. It will be
very interesting, in these examples and in the mouse models of
HSP, to examine whether ablation of droplet biogenesis in specific
cell types modulates the disease phenotypes, for better or
for worse, and how these effects compare to disruption or upregulation
of turnover pathways (Figure 1B,C). Real-time imaging
of the trafficking of labeled fatty acids (as in [39]) and characterization
of the lipidomes and proteomes of these droplets will provide
complementary information to characterize exactly how
lipid metabolism is derailed in the disease conditions.
Given the diverse novel roles proposed for lipid droplets, droplets
should be on the radar screen of many a biologist trying to
uncover the mechanistic basis of an ill-characterized process.
With the recent insights into biogenesis and turnover of lipid
droplets [14], one can now systematically determine how a process
is affected if droplets are entirely absent, are structurally
abnormal, or cannot be degraded. Because lipid droplets are
ubiquitous organelles but have been carefully studied in only a
few cell types, it seems likely that, as our understanding of these unique and dynamic organelles deepens, their cellular and physiological
roles will keep expanding.
Functions of lipid droplets:
Lipid droplets are the intracellular sites for neutral lipid storage. They are critical for lipid metabolism and energy homeostasis, and their dysfunction has been linked to many diseases.Lipid droplets are the source of molecules important in the nucleus: they can sequester transcription factors and chromatin components and generate the lipid ligands for certain nuclear receptors.Lipid droplets are the sites where cells store neutral lipids, such as triglycerides, steryl esters, and retinyl esters