Original Source Material

Student Version

While solitary negative reactions or unjustified suggestions for change have the potential to dissipate discourse rather than build it, the pattern analysis shows that the anonymous condition seemed to provide a safe explorative space for learners to try out more reasons for their multiple solutions. Teachers will rarely give anonymous feedback, but the experience of giving anonymous feedback may open a social space where learners can try out the reasons for their suggestions.

References:
Howard, C. D., Barrett, A. F., & Frick, T. W. (2010). Anonymity to promote peer feedback: Pre-service teachers' comments in asynchronous computer-mediated communication. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 43(1), 89-112.

Teachers don't often provide feedback anonymously, but the ability to provide feedback anonymously may create a context where the rationale associated with specific suggestions can be more safely explored (Howard, Barrett, & Frick, 2010). However, we cannot assume that all anonymous online spaces will serve as safe social spaces.

Original Source Material

Student Version

But what are reasonable outcomes of the influence of global processes on education? While the question of how global processes influence all aspects of education (and who controls these forces) is multidimensional and not completely testable, there appear to be some theories of globalization as it relates to education that can be empirically examined.

References:
Rutkowski, L., & Rutkowski, D. (2009). Trends in TIMSS responses over time: Evidence of global forces in education? Educational Research and Evaluation, 15(2), 137-152.

The authors are not alone in asking “what are reasonable outcomes of the influence of global processes on education?” (p. 138). In fact, this same question provides the basis for the discussion that follows.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Merck, in fact, epitomizes the ideological nature--the pragmatic idealism--of highly visionary companies. Our research showed that a fundamental element in the "ticking clock" of a visionary company is a core ideology--core values and a sense of purpose beyond just making money--that guides and inspires people throughout the organization and remains relatively fixed for long periods of time.

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

Research conducted by Collins and Porras (2002) highlights the importance of establishing and committing to an ideology comprised of two parts: (1) core values; (2) a core purpose. In my personal experience it seems easier to define a core ideology than to live it consistently.

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

Original Source Material

Student Version

The concept of systems is really quite simple. The basic idea is that a system has parts that fit together to make a whole; but where it gets complicated - and interesting - is how those parts are connected or related to each other.There are many kinds of systems: government systems, health systems, military systems, business systems, and educational systems, to name a few.

References:
Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology.Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

The fundamental idea of systems, such as corporations and schools, is actually very simple. Each system has components which interact. What is important is how those components are connected together.

References:
Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology.Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Other major issues involve the accepted methods by which fidelity is measured. There are two major methods described in the literature for fidelity measurement. The first is through mathematical measurement that calculates the number of identical elements shared between the real world and the simulation; the greater the number of shared identical elements, the higher the simulation fidelity. A second method to measure fidelity is through a trainees' performance matrix.

References:
Liu, D., Blickensderfer, E. L., Macchiarella, N. D., & Vincenzi, D. A. (2009). Simulation fidelity. In D. A. Vincenzi, J. A. Wise, M. Mouloua & P. A. Hancock (Eds.), Humanfactors in simulation and training (pp. 61-73). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Liu et al. (2009) identified two major methods for measuring fidelity. The first is a mathematical (objective) method that requires counting "the number of identical elements shared between the real world and the simulation; the greater the number of shared identical elements, the higher the simulation fidelity" (p. 62). The second method involves a performance matrix that compares a human's performance in the simulation with that person's real-world performance, producing an indirect measure of fidelity.

References:
Liu, D., Blickensderfer, E. L., Macchiarella, N. D., & Vincenzi, D. A. (2009). Simulation fidelity. In D. A. Vincenzi, J. A. Wise, M. Mouloua & P. A. Hancock (Eds.), Humanfactors in simulation and training (pp. 61-73). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Original Source Material

Student Version

I accept the point that whenever learning occurs, some medium or mix of media must be present to deliver instruction. However, if learning occurs as a result of exposure to any media, the learning is caused by the instructional method embedded in the media presentation. Method is the inclusion of one of a number of possible representations of a cognitive process or strategy that is necessary for learning but which students cannot or will not provide for themselves.

References:
Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning.  Educational technology research and development, 42(2), 21-29.

Media do not influence learning. Learning takes place because of the instructional methods represented in the medium which are used, rather than medium itself. It is the instructional methods which influence learning.

References:
Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning.  Educational technology research and development, 42(2), 21-29.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Learning is a complex set of processes that may vary according to the developmental level of the learner, the nature of the task, and the context in which the learning is to occur. As already indicated, no one theory can capture all the variables involved in learning.

References:
Gredler, M. E. (2001). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (4th Ed.). Upper Saddle, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

A learning theory, there, comprises a set of constructs linking observed changes in performance with what is thought to bring about those changes.

References:
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction (2nd Ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

A learning theory is made up of "a set of constructs linking observed changes in performance with whatever is thought to bring about those changes" (Driscoll, 2000). Therefore, since "learning is a complex set of processes that may vary according to the developmental level of the learner, the nature of the task, and the context in which the learning is to occur, it is apparent that no one theory can capture all the variables involved in learning" (Gredler, 2001).

Original Source Material

Student Version

The concept of systems is really quite simple. The basic idea is that a system has parts that fit together to make a whole; but where it gets complicated - and interesting - is how those parts are connected or related to each other. There are many kinds of systems: government systems, health systems, military systems, business systems, and educational systems, to name a few.

References:
Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology.Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

Systems, including both business systems, and educational systems, are actually very simple. The main idea is that systems have parts that fit together to make a whole. What is interesting is how those parts are connected together.

Original Source Material

Student Version

In examining the history of the visionary companies, we were struck by how often they made some of their best moves not by detailed strategic planning, but rather by experimentation, trial and error, opportunism, and--quite literally--accident. What looks in hindsight like a brilliant strategy was often the residual result of opportunistic experimentation and "purposeful accidents."

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

When I look back on the decisions I've made, it's clear that I made some of my best choices not through a thorough analytical investigation of my options, but instead by trial and error and, often, simply by accident. The somewhat random aspect of my success or failure is, at the same time, both encouraging and scary.

Original Source Material

The technological tools available today for creating computer-based learning materials are incredibly more powerful than those introduced just a few years ago. We can make our own movies with camcorders in our homes; we can publish our own books. Soon teachers and students will be able to use computer-video technology to produce their own learning materials. All it takes is time, know-how, and some funds.

References:
Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology.Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

Frick (1991) claimed that computers would become so powerful that K-12 educators and students would be able to produce their own multimedia and Web-based learning materials. He predicted that teachers and students would soon be able to use computer-video technology to produce their own learning materials. All it would require is time, know-how, and some funds.

References:
Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology.Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.

Original Source Material

Student Version

The study of learning derives from essentially two sources. Because learning involves the acquisition of knowledge, the first concerns the nature of knowledge and how we come to know things.... The second source in which modern learning theory is rooted concerns the nature and representation of mental life.

References:
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction (2nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

The depiction and essence of mental life, the essential qualities of knowledge, and explanations for how knowledge is created provide for the origins of modern learning theory. Disagreement between theories of learning can often be traced to differences in one or more of these areas.

Original Source Material

Student Version

From reading educator-authors' revisions, and experiencing confusion myself surrounding how performance measures fit into a design case, I feel the problem arises from how new authors view design cases in relation to scientific experimental studies in education. A designer who is also a researcher must recognize the difference in perspective between a design case and an experimental study which uses a design for teaching and learning.

References:
Howard, C. D. (2011). Writing and rewriting the instructional design case: A view from two sides. International Journal of Designs for Learning, 2(1), 40-55.

Seeing the differences in viewpoint between a study that reports experimental results and a design case is a must for an individual who is both a designer and a researcher. Howard identifies this change of perspective as being critical to new authors of design cases.

Original Source Material

Student Version

While solitary negative reactions or unjustified suggestions for change have the potential to dissipate discourse rather than build it, the pattern analysis shows that the anonymous condition seemed to provide a safe explorative space for learners to try out more reasons for their multiple solutions. Teachers will rarely give anonymous feedback, but the experience of giving anonymous feedback may open a social space where learners can try out the reasons for their suggestions.

References:
Howard, C. D., Barrett, A. F., & Frick, T. W. (2010). Anonymity to promote peer feedback: Pre-service teachers' comments in asynchronous computer-mediated communication. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 43(1), 89-112.

Teachers don't often provide feedback anonymously, but the ability to provide feedback anonymously may create a context where the rationale associated with specific suggestions can be more safely explored (Howard, Barrett, & Frick, 2010). However, we cannot assume that all anonymous online spaces will serve as safe social spaces.

Original Source Material

Student Version

The new paradigm of education requires the student, teacher, and parents to be informed of what the student has actually learned at any point in time, to assure that progress is continuous and personalized, and to make good decisions about what to learn next. The recordkeeping tool of an information-age LMS will replace the current report card.

References:
Reigeluth, C. M., Watson, W. R., Watson, S. L., Dutta, P., Chen, Z. C., & Powell, N. D. P. (2008). Roles for technology in the information-age paradigm of education: Learning management systems. Educational Technology, 48(6), 32-39.

Some have suggested approaches for replacing the current report card. For example, Reigeluth and colleagues (2008) suggest a recording-keeping tool that could inform key stake holders of the current state of a student's knowledge to facilitate good decision-making about what a student should study next.

References:
Reigeluth, C. M., Watson, W. R., Watson, S. L., Dutta, P., Chen, Z. C., & Powell, N. D. P. (2008). Roles for technology in the information-age paradigm of education: Learning management systems. Educational Technology, 48(6), 32-39.

Original Source Material

Student Version

It is when all our forces can move freely in us. In nature, this quality is almost automatic, because there are no images to interfere with natural processes of making things. But in all of our creations, the possibility occurs that images can interfere with the natural, necessary order of a thing. And, most of all, this way that images distort the things we make, is familiar in ourselves.

References:
Alexander, C. (1979). The timeless way of building(Vol. 1). New York, NY: Oxford University Press USA.

When Alexander (1979) says that "in all of our creations, the possibility occurs that images can interfere with the natural, necessary order of a thing" (p. 48) he seems to imply that there is one unique right way possible to design a solution to a problem. While this perspective could be considered elitist, some of the most successful products are based on this premise.

References:
Alexander, C. (1979). The timeless way of building(Vol. 1). New York, NY: Oxford University Press USA.

Original Source Material

Student Version

In examining the history of the visionary companies, we were struck by how often they made some of their best moves not by detailed strategic planning, but rather by experimentation, trial and error, opportunism, and--quite literally--accident. What looks in hindsight like a brilliant strategy was often the residual result of opportunistic experimentation and "purposeful accidents."

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

The variety of projects that Google undertakes, from Internet search to cars that drive themselves, could be considered lack of focus. However, perhaps Google recognizes that successful moves that looked like the result of "a brilliant strategy was often the residual result of opportunistic experimentation" (Collins & Porras, 2002, p. 141).

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Merck, in fact, epitomizes the ideological nature--the pragmatic idealism--of highly visionary companies. Our research showed that a fundamental element in the "ticking clock" of a visionary company is a core ideology--core values and a sense of purpose beyond just making money--that guides and inspires people throughout the organization and remains relatively fixed for long periods of time.

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

While some have identified Merck as a visionary company dedicated to a "core values and a sense of purpose beyond just making money" (Collins & Porras, 2002, p. 48), others point out corporate misdeeds perpetrated by Merck (e.g., its role in establishing a dubious medical journal that republished articles favorable to Merck products) as contradictory evidence.

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Modifications that increase task difficulty are also presented to assist instructors in structuring developmental progressions for activities that reflect various net/wall games. For example, game modifications that require participants to strike a ball with a hand after a bounce are introduced before requiring participants to strike a ball with a racquet or with a hand without a bounce.

References:
Mandigo, J. L., & Anderson, A. T. (2003). Using the pedagogical principles in net/wall games to enhance teaching effectiveness. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, 14(1), 8-11.

One strategy for changing a task to decrease difficulty comes from physical education where "game modifications that require participants to strike a ball with a hand after a bounce are introduced before requiring participants to strike a ball with a racquet or with a hand without a bounce" (Mandigo & Anderson, 2003, p. 9). A participant may then be able to focus on other aspects of the game (e.g., strategy) or find that their anxiety about playing has decreased.

References:
Mandigo, J. L., & Anderson, A. T. (2003). Using the pedagogical principles in net/wall games to enhance teaching effectiveness. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, 14(1), 8-11.

Original Source Material

Student Version

While solitary negative reactions or unjustified suggestions for change have the potential to dissipate discourse rather than build it, the pattern analysis shows that the anonymous condition seemed to provide a safe explorative space for learners to try out more reasons for their multiple solutions. Teachers will rarely give anonymous feedback, but the experience of giving anonymous feedback may open a social space where learners can try out the reasons for their suggestions.

References:
Howard, C. D., Barrett, A. F., & Frick, T. W. (2010). Anonymity to promote peer feedback: Pre-service teachers' comments in asynchronous computer-mediated communication. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 43(1), 89-112.

It is clear that "solitary negative reactions or unjustified suggestions for change have the potential to dissipate discourse" (Howard, Barrett, & Frick, 2010, p. 103). However, anonymity may give learners a context in which they can try providing solutions that are more thoroughly supported by an accompanying rational (Howard, Barrett, & Frick, 2010). Clearly, the positive and negative consequences that anonymity has on peer feedback must be considered.

References:
Howard, C. D., Barrett, A. F., & Frick, T. W. (2010). Anonymity to promote peer feedback: Pre-service teachers' comments in asynchronous computer-mediated communication. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 43(1), 89-112.

Original Source Material

Student Version

It should be apparent that technology will play a crucial role in the success of the information-age paradigm of education. It will enable a quantum improvement in student learning, and likely at a lower cost per student per year than in the current industrial-age paradigm. Just as the electronic spreadsheet made the accountant's job quicker, easier, and less expensive, the kind of LMS described here will make the teacher's job quicker, easier, and less expensive.

References:
Reigeluth, C. M., Watson, W. R., Watson, S. L., Dutta, P., Chen, Z. C., & Powell, N. D. P. (2008). Roles for technology in the information-age paradigm of education: Learning management systems. Educational Technology, 48(6), 32-39.

Introducing technology into the workplace does not automatically improve job performance. While managers may dream of lower costs, the introduction of technology may increase costs (especially in the short term) if using/learning the technology makes the individual's job harder.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Many students graduate from college not knowing what they want to do with their lives. We propose that students should be encouraged to think about life goals (not just career goals) from an early age and be encouraged to be constantly on the lookout for better goals.

References:
Reigeluth, C. M., Watson, W. R., Watson, S. L., Dutta, P., Chen, Z. C., & Powell, N. D. P. (2008). Roles for technology in the information-age paradigm of education: Learning management systems. Educational Technology, 48(6), 32-39.

Unfortunately, I was not encouraged to think about life goals (not just career goals) from an early age or encouraged to be on the lookout for better goals (Reigeluth et al., 2008, p.34). Instead, my parents and teachers seemed to care more about trivial details like showing up to class on time.

References:
Reigeluth, C. M., Watson, W. R., Watson, S. L., Dutta, P., Chen, Z. C., & Powell, N. D. P. (2008). Roles for technology in the information-age paradigm of education: Learning management systems. Educational Technology, 48(6), 32-39.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Obviously, it is vitally important in the war of attrition that individuals should give no inkling of when they are going to give up. Anybody who betrayed, by the merest flicker of a whisker, that he was beginning to think of throwing in the sponge, would be at an instant disadvantage.

References:
Dawkins, R. (1989). The selfish gene (3rd ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

In the game of survival between individuals in nature, indicating in any way that tossing in the towel is being seriously considered can be exploited by an adversary (Dawkins, 1989).

Original Source Material

Student Version

We shall take the simpleminded view that a theory is just a model of the universe, or a restricted part of it, and a set of rules that relate quantities in the model to observations that we make. It exists only in our minds and does not have any other reality (whatever that might mean). A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two requirements. It must accurately describe a large class of observations on the basis of a model that contains only a few arbitrary elements, and it must make definite predictions about the results of future observations.

References:
Hawking, S., & Mlodinow, L. (2008). A briefer history of time (Reprint.). New York, NY: Bantam.

A theory can be thought to exist only in our brains and lack any other form of tangible reality. This does not mean that theories are just fleeting thoughts, since they are comprised of a specific model of how things work and rules that associate model attributes to what we observe in the universe.

Original Source Material

Student Version

There is a desperate need for theorists and researchers to generate and refine a new breed of learning-focused instructional design theories that help educators and trainers to meet those needs, (i.e., that focus on learning and that foster development of initiative, teamwork, thinking skills, and diversity). The health of instructional-design theory also depends on its ability to involve stakeholders in the design process.

Reference 1:
Reigeluth, C. M. (1999). What is instructional-design theory and how is it changing? In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (Vol. II, pp. 5-29). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Original Source Material 2
By instruction I mean any deliberate arrangement of events to facilitate a learner's acquisition of some goal. The goal can range from knowledge to skills to strategies to attitudes, and so on.

Reference 2
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction (2nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Driscoll (2000) defines instruction broadly as "any deliberate arrangement of events to facilitate a learner's acquisition of some goal" (p. 25). In order to increase the effectiveness of instruction, there is a critical need for the creation and refinement of instructional design theories to aid those who seek to promote learning. According to Reigeluth (1999), "The health of instructional-design theory also depends on its ability to involve stakeholders in the design process" (p. 27).

References:
Driscoll, M. P. (2000). Psychology of learning for instruction (2nd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Reigeluth, C. M. (1999). What is instructional-design theory and how is it changing? In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory(Vol. II, pp. 5-29). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Original Source Material

Student Version

The philosophical position known as constructivism views knowledge as a human construction. The various perspectives within constructivism are based on the premise that knowledge is not part of an objective, external reality that is separate from the individual. Instead, human knowledge, whether the bodies of content in public disciplines (such as mathematics or sociology) or knowledge of the individual learner, is a human construction.

References:
Gredler, M. E. (2001). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Does knowledge exist outside of, or separate from, the individual who knows? Constructivists hold that human knowledge, whether the bodies of content in public disciplines (such as mathematics or sociology) or knowledge of the individual learner, is a human construction (Gredler, 2001).

References:
Gredler, M. E. (2001). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Pei is popularly known for the controversy surrounding his Grand Louvre Pyramid (1988), constructed in the courtyard of the Louvre (fig. 25.21). The Pyramid deliberately turns the tradition and concept of pyramid inside out. A pyramid is supposed to be solid, dark, and solitary--a mesmerizing symbol of the exotic world beyond the streets and cultures of Europe.

References:
Arnason, H. H. (2003). History of modern art: painting, sculpture, architecture, photography (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

We saw one of the highlights of the architectural tour of Paris as we approached the Louvre. The guide told us that Pei's Grand Louvre Pyramid deliberately turns the tradition and concept of pyramid inside out. When we got off the bus we were able to get a closer look at the glass pyramid and what was below it.

Original Source Material

Student Version

As a further example, APT queries and their results may be used to form rules for expert systems that become part of an intelligent computer-based instructional system. Such a system theoretically can optimize student learning by recommending instructional sequences (i.e., temporal patterns) that have high probabilities of resulting in student mastery. In other words, APT-based decision making by a computer program can provide an empirical foundation for artificial intelligence.

References:
Frick, T. W. (1990). Analysis of patterns in time: A method of recording and quantifying temporal relations in education. American Educational Research Journal, 27(1), 180-204.

One way that learning can be personalized is through the use of computers to aid in "recommending instructional sequences (i.e., temporal patterns) that have high probabilities of resulting in student mastery" (Frick, 1990, p. 202). However, the ability for computers to make appropriate decisions about instructional strategies is limited, in part, by the quality of information they have access to.

References:
Frick, T. W. (1990). Analysis of patterns in time: A method of recording and quantifying temporal relations in education. American Educational Research Journal, 27(1), 180-204.

Original Source Material

Student Version

But what are reasonable outcomes of the influence of global processes on education? While the question of how global processes influence all aspects of education (and who controls these forces) is multidimensional and not completely testable, there appear to be some theories of globalization as it relates to education that can be empirically examined.

References:
Rutkowski, L., & Rutkowski, D. (2009). Trends in TIMSS responses over time: Evidence of global forces in education? Educational Research and Evaluation, 15(2), 137-152.

The authors are not alone in asking “what are reasonable outcomes of the influence of global processes on education” (p.138). In fact, this same question provides the basis for the discussion that follows.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Suppose you study a group of successful companies and you find that they emphasize customer focus, or quality improvement, or empowerment; how do you know that you haven't merely discovered the management practice equivalent of having buildings? How do you know that you've discovered something that distinguishes the successful companies from other companies? You don't know. You can't know--not unless you have a control set, a comparison group.

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

Attributes of rigorous research can be shared across subjects of study. For example, Collins and Porras (2002) highlight the importance of having a control group when comparing companies in any effort to identify what specific company characteristics are able to distinguish the successful from the ordinary.

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Merck, in fact, epitomizes the ideological nature--the pragmatic idealism--of highly visionary companies. Our research showed that a fundamental element in the "ticking clock" of a visionary company is a core ideology--core values and a sense of purpose beyond just making money--that guides and inspires people throughout the organization and remains relatively fixed for long periods of time.

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

Several factors can contribute to long-term organizational success. One is the establishment of a core ideology that Collins and Porras (2002) describe as "core values and sense of purpose beyond just making money" (p. 48). Also, the importance of a visionary leader that guides and inspires people throughout the organization and remains relatively fixed for long periods of time is hard to over emphasize.

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Merck, in fact, epitomizes the ideological nature--the pragmatic idealism--of highly visionary companies. Our research showed that a fundamental element in the "ticking clock" of a visionary company is a core ideology--core values and a sense of purpose beyond just making money--that guides and inspires people throughout the organization and remains relatively fixed for long periods of time.

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

Several factors can contribute to long-term organizational success. One is the establishment of a core ideology that Collins and Porras (2002) describe as "core values and sense of purpose beyond just making money" (p. 48). Also, the importance of a visionary leader that guides and inspires people throughout the organization and remains relatively fixed for long periods of time is hard to over emphasize.

References:
Collins, J. C., & Porras, J. I. (2002). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Paperbacks.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Major changes within organizations are usually initiated by those who are in power. Such decision-makers sponsor the change and then appoint someone else - perhaps the director of training - to be responsible for implementing and managing change. Whether the appointed change agent is in training development or not, there is often the implicit assumption that training will "solve the problem." And, indeed, training may solve part of the problem.... The result is that potentially effective innovations suffer misuse, or even no use, in the hands of uncommitted users.

References:
Dormant, D. (1986). The ABCDs of managing change. In Introduction to Performance Technology (p. 238-256). Washington, D.C.: National Society of Performance and Instruction.

When major changes are initiated in organizations, there is often the implicit assumption that training will 'solve the problem.' And, indeed, training may solve part of the problem (Dormant, 1986, p. 238).

References:
Dormant, D. (1986). The ABCDs of managing change. In Introduction to Performance Technology (p. 238-256). Washington, D.C.: National Society of Performance and Instruction.

Original Source Material

Student Version

First, the potential of digital games is discussed using the tutor/tool/tutee framework proposed by Taylor (1980). Second, the potential of digital games to enhance learning by connecting game worlds and real worlds is stated. Third, the possibility of digital games to facilitate collaborative problem-solving is addressed. Fourth, the capability of digital games to provide an affective environment for science learning is suggested. Last, the potential of using digital games to promote science learning for younger students is indicated.

References:
Li, M. C., & Tsai, C. C. (2013). Game-Based Learning in Science Education: A Review of Relevant Research. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 1-22.

There are five advantages of using games in science learning stated in the literature. Games can be used as tools; make connections between virtual worlds and the real world; promote collaborative problem solving; provide affective and safe environments; and encourage younger students for science learning.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Instructional designers typically employ models to guide their day-to-day work. Due to the increased practice of the systematic design of instruction in a growing number of settings, available models become more and more proliferated, focusing on particular types and contexts of learning, particular groups of learners or designers, or particular instructional units (either whole curricula or individual modules or lessons.)

The main goal of any instructional design process is to construct a learning environment in order to provide learners with the conditions that support desired learning processes.

References:
Merriënboer, J. J. van. (1997). Training complex cognitive skills. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

"The main goal of any instructional design process is to construct a learning environment in order to provide learners with the conditions that support desired learning processes" (van Merriënboer, 1997, p. 2). Process models proliferate because more and more designers generate models that focus on specific contexts, learners, or even units of instruction, according to van Merriënboer.

References:
Merriënboer, J. J. van. (1997). Training complex cognitive skills. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Original Source Material

Student Version

Because computer systems exhibit performative intelligence, we can teach them to do tasks. It is this very capability that makes it possible to use computers as an interactive medium for instruction and learning. It is interaction which sets computers systems apart from other media such as books, television, and film. However, present-day computers literally do not understand the culturally bound meanings of the messages which they manipulate during these interactions because such computers lack qualitative intelligence.

References:
Frick, T. (1997). Artificially intelligent tutoring systems: what computers can and can't know. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 16(2), 107-124.

According to Frick (1997), computer systems demonstrate performative intelligence, when compared to other media such as books, television, and film. Computers can be programmed to do things. This feature of computer systems makes them an alternative medium for instruction and learning. However, he claims that computer systems lack the ability to understand the meaning of messages they send and receive during interaction with students and teachers.

References:
Frick, T. (1997). Artificially intelligent tutoring systems: what computers can and can't know. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 16(2), 107-124.

Original Source Material

Student Version

But what are reasonable outcomes of the influence of global processes on education? While the question of how global processes influence all aspects of education (and who controls these forces) is multidimensional and not completely testable, there appear to be some theories of globalization as it relates to education that can be empirically examined.

References:
Rutkowski, L., & Rutkowski, D. (2009). Trends in TIMSS responses over time: Evidence of global forces in education? Educational Research and Evaluation, 15(2), 137-152.

Rutkowski and Rutkowski (2009) ask "what are reasonable outcomes of the influence of global processes on education?" (p. 138). This question is not entirely testable and has multiple dimensions but theories of globalization's impact on education exist and provide means of empirical analysis.

References:
Rutkowski, L., & Rutkowski, D. (2009). Trends in TIMSS responses over time: Evidence of global forces in education? Educational Research and Evaluation, 15(2), 137-152.

Original Source Material

Student Version

The concept of systems is really quite simple. The basic idea is that a system has parts that fit together to make a whole; but where it gets complicated - and interesting - is how those parts are connected or related to each other. There are many kinds of systems: government systems, health systems, military systems, business systems, and educational systems, to name a few.

References:
Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.indiana.edu/~tedfrick/
fastback/fastback326.html#nature

Frick (1991) claims that systems, including both business systems, and educational systems, are actually very simple. The main idea is that systems "have parts that fit together to make a whole" (The nature of systems in education section, para. 1). What is further interesting to Frick is how those parts are connected together.

References:
Frick, T. (1991). Restructuring education through technology. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.indiana.edu/~tedfrick/
fastback/fastback326.html#nature

Original Source Material

Student Version

The goal of instruction for the behaviorist is to elicit the desired response from the learner who is presented with a target stimulus. To accomplish this, the learner must know how to execute the proper response, as well as the conditions under which that response should be made. Therefore, instruction is structured around the presentation of the target stimulus and the provision of opportunities for the learner to practice making the proper response.

References:
Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-71.

According to behaviorism, instruction should provide necessary stimulus in order for learners to produce desired response. It is important that the learner must know how to execute the proper response under the required conditions in order to produce the desired response (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Instruction should provide learner with opportunities that the learner practice to elicit the desired outcome.

References:
Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-71.

Original Source Material

Student Version

The philosophical position known as constructivism views knowledge as a human construction. The various perspectives within constructivism are based on the premise that knowledge is not part of an objective, external reality that is separate from the individual. Instead, human knowledge, whether the bodies of content in public disciplines (such as mathematics or sociology) or knowledge of the individual learner, is a human construction.

References:
Gredler, M. E. (2001). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (4th Ed.). Upper Saddle, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

The philosophical position known as constructivism views knowledge as a human construction. The various perspectives within constructivism are based on the premise that knowledge is not part of an objective, external reality that is separate from the individual. Instead, human knowledge is a human construction.

Original Source Material

Student Version

But what are reasonable outcomes of the influence of global processes on education? While the question of how global processes influence all aspects of education (and who controls these forces) is multidimensional and not completely testable, there appear to be some theories of globalization as it relates to education that can be empirically examined.

References:
Rutkowski, L., & Rutkowski, D. (2009). Trends in TIMSS responses over time: Evidence of global forces in education? Educational Research and Evaluation, 15(2), 137-152.

The question of “how global processes influence all aspects of education (and who controls these forces) is multidimensional and not completely testable but there appear to be some theories of globalization as it relates to education that can be empirically examined” (Rutkowski and Rutkowski, 2009, p. 138).