A report recently stated that human activities are estimated to have caused approximately 1.0°C of global warming above pre-industrial levels on average, with a 66% confidence interval of 0.8°C to 1.2°C. Assume that the report relied on a sample of 100 global temperatures from 1998 to 2017 to calculate the sample average of 1.0°C (x ̅), and that the standard deviation of the population of global temperatures from 1998 to 2017 is known (σ).

a. What is the approximate distribution of X ̅? What is the standard normal critical value used to create a 66% confidence interval centered at zero?

b. That is, solve for z, where Pr⁡(-z≤Z≤z)=66%. (Note: solve for z to the nearest hundredth; do not interpolate in an effort to get a more precise answer.)

c. Using the answers to a. and b., solve for σ. Having solved for σ, what is the 95% confidence interval for the population mean of global temperatures from 1998 to 2017?

Use the modified abstract below to answer the following question: OBJECTIVES: The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and M. tuberculosis co-infection is a major global challenge. It is not properly clear why some HIV-positive people are co-infected with tuberculosis (TB) while others are not. This study answered this question. METHODS: This case-control study was conducted in Tehran, Iran, in June 2004, enrolling 2388 HIV-positive people. Cases were selected from those who were co-infected with TB and controls from those without TB. Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed to assess the association between M. tuberculosis/HIV co-infection and several predictors. RESULTS: In this study, 241 cases were compared with 2147 controls. Sex, age, marital status, educational level, imprisonment, smoking, narcotic addiction, route of HIV transmission, previous TB infection, isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT), antiretroviral therapy (ART), and CD4 count were independently associated with M. tuberculosis/HIV co-infection. However, after adjusting for all other variables in the model, only the association between M. tuberculosis/HIV co-infection and the following predictors were of importance: imprisoned (OR=3.82), previous TB infection (OR=5.54). CONCLUSIONS: Conclusions: Several predictors are associated with M. tuberculosis/HIV co-infection, but, there are only a few indicators that significantly affect the risk of M. tuberculosis/HIV co-infection. It is estimated that a number of predictors of M. tuberculosis/HIV co-infection still remain unknown and require further investigations.

Which of the following measures of effect are statistically significant? Select all that apply.

26) When oxygen is not available as a final electron acceptor, human cells go through fermentation. What is the disadvantage to this process in humans?
    A. Significantly less ATP is extracted from glucose.        B. Ethanol is a byproduct.
    C. Our genes can become mutated.            D. Mitochondria degrade in lysosomes.

27) Why is the signal transduction pathway necessary?
A. This is how viruses are inactivated by T lymphocytes.
B. It is necessary to get bacteria to make proteins for medical purposes.
C. Some messages (growth factors) are proteins which cannot get through the cell membrane to deliver the message directly to DNA.
D. Some cells which should go through apoptosis ignore the message.
   
28) Which of the following genes is a tumor suppressor gene and is carried by both men and women?  
        A. OVA 3        B. huntingtin        C. BRCA1        D. ABCR

Explain:

(a) Myelinated axon: Some neurons, like most of the neurons in human body, have myelinated axons; the axons are wrapped around with segmented myelin sheaths. When compared with unmyelinated axons of the same axon diameter, the neural signal transmission speed along myelinated axons is much faster than that along unmyelinated axons. Qualitatively and briefly explain why.

(b) Hopfield model: Hopfield model can be considered as a form of neural net algorithm of retrieving information from a large database. When we compare the functioning of the Hopfield model with that of conventional database algorithms where information retrieval is carried out by examining all the entries in the entire database, one at a time, in view of retrieval criteria, what are the most significant differences? Qualitatively and briefly describe at least two significant differences. Assume that the database is very large.

Human color vision is “produced” by the nervous system based on how three different cone receptors interact with pho-tons of light in the eye. These three different types of cones interact with photons of different frequency light, as indicated in the following chart:

Cone Type Range of Light/Frequency Detected

S 6.00-7.49x10^14s^-1   

M 4.76-6.62x10^14s^-1

L 4.28-6.00x10^14s^-1

What wavelength ranges (and corresponding colors) do the three types of cones detect?

"A study was conducted to evaluate new test for human papilloma virus (HPV). One hundred fifteen women with HPV were compared to 426 women who did not have HPV. A total of 97 women tested positive using the new test, 81 of whom really did have HPV.

You will be graded on calculations (including completion of the 2x2 table as shown in class and showing your work for calculation, your interpretations, and your answers to the other questions. Your interpretations must be specific and will be graded on accuracy, correct use of scientific terminology, professional writing style, grammar and spelling."

a) Complete a contingency table

b) How many women are in each of the following categories?

True positives:

False positives:

True negatives:

False negatives:

c) Calculate and interpret the sensitivity of the new screening test.

d) Calculate and interpret the specificity of the new screening test.

e) Calculate and interpret the positive predictive value of the new screening test.

f) Calculate and interpret the negative predictive value of the new screening test.

g) Do you think that it would be better to use this new screening test for HPV or an older screening test with 90% sensitivity and 80% specificity. The older screening test is more expensive. Write 75-100 words supporting your position.

You have been recently hired in the human resources department at the company you have always dreamed of working for. At the end of your first day, your manager, I. M. DeBoss, on her way out of the office says to you: “So Mr./Ms. Jones, what things come to mind when you think of the word “ethics”? Before you can answer, she asks you if you believe ethics are important for a company and if so why do you feel that way? Not letting up, because she is DeBoss, she then asks you if you think your views on ethics have evolved based on your life experiences or do you believe as suggested in the 60 Minutes piece, “Born good? Babies help unlock the origins of Morality,” that your ethics DNA was established at birth and why?

Just as you are about to respond to her, she says “I am sorry Mr./Ms. Jones but I really have to run but I want to continue our conversation tomorrow.” You are relieved because you will have a night to ponder her questions and wow her with your responses tomorrow. How would you respond to your manager?