1 a. What is meant by “energy charge” of a cell?

b. Describe two conditions that would indicate a low cell energy charge?

c. What effect does a low energy charge have on cellular metabolism? Explain.

d. How many ATP are produced from the complete oxidation of pyruvate?

2. Glucose and fructose are both carbohydrates. Discuss the similarities and differences between them. What is their isomeric relationship? What type of ring structures does each tend to form? What is sucrose? How does sucrose differ from lactose? Include structures where necessary.

3. Glycolysis is a series of reactions that converts one molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate and two molecules of ATP. The ∆G^0’ for the set of reactions is -35.6 kJ/mol (-8.5 kcal/mol) whereas the ∆G is -76.6 kJ/mol (-18.3 kcal/mol). Explain why the free energy release differs under actual cellular conditions as compared to standard conditions.

4. a. Pyruvate dehydrogenase (the complex) catalyzes which reaction? Show the substrates and products. b.Name the coenzymes required and explain the function of each one. c.List one positive and one negative allosteric modulator. d.Where in the cell does this reaction take place

5. a. NAD⁺ participates in three steps of the citric acid cycle. Show the reactions and the enzymes involved in each step. b.In which reaction is FAD generated (include the enzyme)?

6. Name the citric acid cycle enzymes that are subject to allosteric modulation.               Name one positive and one negative allosteric modulator for each enzyme.

A neuron can use glucose created from a non-carbohydrate source.  This reaction is termed:

1. glycogenolysis  b) glycogenesis  c) photosynthesis  d) glycolysis  e) none of the above

Which of the following statements is (are) true about epithelial tissue?

      a)  epithelial cells secrete collagen    b)  epithelial tissue functions in absorption

      c)  epithelial tissue has each of the 4 tissue types     d)  epithelial cells are always ciliated

      e)  two of the above are true

Which of the following require “active” transport processes?

1. movement of glucose from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
2. osmosis    c)  simple diffusion       d) a and b         e)  none of the above

A bundle of axons in the central nervous system is called a _________ and a bundle of axons in the peripheral nervous system is called a ______________

        a) tract; nerve   b) nerve; tract  c) ganglia; nucleus  d) nucleus, ganglia  e) ganglia; nerve

Which of the following binds to the active site of an enzyme?

            a) non competitive inhibitor       b) water   c) another enzyme    d) substrate   e) pro

In the para sympathetic nervous system, the ganglia containing the post ganglionic somas are located ____________.

      a) adjacent to the spinal cord   b) in the CNS   c) near or on the effector organ

      d) in the spino-cerebellar tract     e) none of the above

When Robin kicks a soccer ball, her leg makes contact with the ball by _______ of the knee.  This is an example of a/an __________ contraction of the quadriceps.

       a)  flexion; concentric         b)  flexion; eccentric      c)  extension; eccentric

       d) extension; concentric      e)  flexion; isometric     

The amino acid sequence of human adrenocorticotropin, a polypeptide hormone, is: Ser-Tyr-Ser-Met-Glu-His-Glu-Arg-Trp-Gly-Lys-Pro-Val-Gly-Lys-Lys-Arg-Arg-Pro-Val-Lys-Val-Tyr-Pro-Asp-Ala-Gly-Glu-Asp-Gln-Ser-Ala-Glu-Ala-Glu-Pro-Leu-Glu-Phe a)What is the approximate net charge of this molecule at pH 3? ph 7? ph 9? Assume that the pKs of the terminal -NH3+ and -COOH groups are 7.8 and 3.6, respectively.

1.If life exists on other planets, these lifeforms would resemble humans.
true
false

2.Aging reduces all of the following in the circulatory system except
A. white blood cells
B. hemoglobin
C. lymphocytes
3.Complex organic compounds, such as amino acids, are only found on earth.
true
false
4.The record number of extreme climate events in 2019
A. increased 14% above average
B. increased 50% above average
C. decreased 14% below average
D. decreased 50% below average
5.This occurs as the body’s function declines, usually after sexual peak, around the age of 19.
A. Gerontology
B. Senility
C. Growth
D. Age-related change
6.Bushmeat consumption is thought to be a method of transmission of
A. SIV
B. Zika
C. Influenza
D. SARS

In step four of glycolysis, the C6 species is split into two C3 species, the two trioses that are produced are not identicle. Name these two trioses. Which of these two C3 species is a glycolysis intermediate? What is the fate of the other triose?

Some of the properties of strong and weak acids are different. All statements below are properties of weak acids except for:

a. Weak acids dissociate only slightly in water

b. Weak acids dissociate completely if the pH is raised

c. Weak acids have a pKa

d. Weak acids can serve as buffers

E. Weak acids dissociate completely at an pH

What is the ATP net output for aerobic respiration for the following steps:

Glycolysis

Kreb Cycle

Electron Transport Chain

State how many of the following will be produced during glycolysis with two glucose molecules:

Pyruvate

ATP    

NADH

Gyrate atrophy is a degeneration of the retina that begins in late adolescence as night blindness and progresses to blindness. The cause is mutation in the gene that encodes a mitochondrial enzyme, ornithine aminotransferase (OAT), on chromosome 10. This autosomal recessive inborn error of metabolism causes build up in body fluids of ornithine, which derives from the amino acid arginine, found in dietary protein. Researchers sequenced the OAT gene for five patients with the following results:

Patient A: A change in codon 209 of UAU to UAA

Patient B: A change in codon 299 of UAC to UAG

Patient C: A change in codon 426 of CGA to UGA

Patient D: A 2 base deletion at codons 64 and 65 that results in a UGA codon at position 79

Patient E: Exon 6, including 1,071 bases, is entirely deleted.

1. Another patient, F, has the mutations seen in patients A and B. How is this possible?

Chapter 3

• Explain the different Biological functions of Proteins.
• What are the monomers that make up proteins? What type of bond connects them?
• Describe the structure of an amino acid. How many are there and how do they differ?
• What are some of the different properties associated with amino acid side chains?
• What types of reactions make polypeptides? Break them down?
• Explain the different levels of protein structure and how they contribute to the shape of the protein. What are the shapes associated with secondary structure?
• What different types of chemical interactions contribute to protein structure?
• What occurs when a protein is denatured? What environmental conditions result in proteins being denatured?
• Briefly explain the role of proteins in catalysis (enzymatic function)
• What happens when the shape of a protein changes?

Chapter 6

• What is a Lipid?
• What are the Biological functions of Lipids?
• What are the three most important types of lipids found in cells?
• What is a triglyceride?
• How do fatty acids differ?
• Explain chemically and functionally the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats.
• What is structurally different between a phospholipid and a triglyceride?
• What are the different roles for phospholipids?
• How would saturated vs unsaturated fats impact the function of membranes?
• What are the different functions of Sterols? What are some of the different molecules that are made from cholesterol as a precursor?