Various experiments have shown that the SARS CoV-2 is an RNA virus that enter the human cells through a transmembrane receptor called angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and genome sequencing have been cardinal in both diagnosis and research into the COVID-19 pandemic. Currently, DNA sequences of both SARS CoV-2 virus and susceptible human hosts are available. As a student of molecular biology and biotechnology, use the above information to answer the following questions.

9.In the study of the proteome of human cells infected with SARS CoV-2 virus, demonstrate how “hybrid release translation (HRT)” or “hybrid arrest translation (HART)” could be employed to differentiate between protein products of SARS CoV-2 and human genomes.

In 1906 Harden and Young, in a series of classic studies on the fermentation of glucose to ethanol and CO2 by extracts of brewer's yeast, made the following observations.

(A) Inorganic phosphate was essential to fermentation; when the supply of phosphate was exhausted, fermentation ceased before all the glucose was used.
(B) During fermentation under these conditions, ethanol, CO2, and a sugar phosphate accumulated.
(C) When arsenate was substituted for phosphate, no sugar phosphate acumulated, but the fermentation proceeded until all the glucose was converted to ethanol and CO2.

Answer the following questions.

1. Which enzyme of glycolysis requires inorganic phosphate and therefore stops when no phosphate is available?
(a) glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
(b) phosphoglycerate mutase
(c) phosphofructokinase-1
(d) phosphoglycerate kinase

2. What sugar phosphate accumulates under these conditions?
(a) glucose 1,6-biphosphate
(b) glucose 1-phosphate
(c) fructose 1-phosphate
(d) fructose 1,6-biphosphate

3. Arsenate substitution for phosphate generated an acyl arsenate compound that immediately degraded. What glycolysis intermediate was a product of the spontaneous degradation of this acyl arsenate?
(a) glycerol 3-phosphate
(b) 3-phosphoglycerate
(c) dihydroxyacetone phosphate
(d) glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

Question 1

What is the process that results in a population adapted to the environment?

Group of answer choices

natural selection

reproduction

homeostasis

biodiversity

metabolism

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Question 2

Which of the following is NOT required for natural selection?

Group of answer choices

Organisms acquire their characteristics under environmental pressure

Organisms struggle to exist

Organisms vary in their traits

Organisms differ in their fitness biodiversity

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Question 3

Match the evidence for evolution with its example. Answers can be used more than once.

Group of answer choices

The human knee bone and spine were derived from ancestral structures that supported four-legged animals.

      [ Choose ]            Anatomical / Biogeographical / Biochemical      

The genetic code is the same for all organisms.

      [ Choose ]            Anatomical / Biogeographical / Biochemical      

The South American continent lacks rabbits, even though the environment is quite suitable.

      [ Choose ]            Anatomical / Biogeographical / Biochemical      

The amino acid sequence of human hemoglobin is more similar to that of rhesus monkeys than to that of mice.

      [ Choose ]            Anatomical / Biogeographical / Biochemical      

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Question 4

The fossil record offers direct evidence for common descent because you can (select all that apply)

Group of answer choices

trace the ancestry of a particular group over time.

sometimes find common ancestors.

see the different beak sizes in finches

see that the types of fossils change over time.

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Question 5

Which of the following is NOT an example of natural selection?

Group of answer choices

On a tree, leaves that grow in the shade are larger than those that row in the sun.

Plant species that produce fragrances to attract pollinators produce more offspring.

Rabbits that sprint quickly are more likely to escape predation.

Insect populations exposed to pesticides become resistant to the chemicals.

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Question 6

The process of ____________ leads to organisms that are ______________ that environment.

Group of answer choices

homeostasis, suited to

natural selection, adapted to

evolution, not suited to

adaptation, only found in

natural selection, perfect for

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Question 7

Which of the following is NOT evidence that supports evolution?

Group of answer choices

Geology and fossils

Analogous structures

Biogeography

Anatomically similar structures

Molecular biology

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Question 8

What 3 factors in the body interact to maintain homeostasis?

Group of answer choices

Proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids

Chemical, thermal and neural factors

Chemical, thermal and endocrine factors

Hormone, immune, and neural factors

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Question 9

Which of the following are examples of things in the body that need to maintain homeostasis (select all that apply)?

Group of answer choices

Body Temperature

Blood Pressure

Skin pigments

Blood Composition

Blood Volume

Digestive enzymes

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Question 10

Placebos are used in which of the following?

Group of answer choices

Independent variable groups

Test groups

Control groups

Dependent variable groups

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Question 11

A hypothesis cannot be formed without a/an

Group of answer choices

observation

conclusion

theory

experiment

data

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Question 12

In an experiment, what is the variable that is measured?

Group of answer choices

Placebo

Dependent

Independent

Control

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Question 13

Which of the following are molecules?  Select all that apply.

Group of answer choices

H2O

NaCl

N2

Mg

CO2

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Question 14

Which of the following are compounds?  Select all that apply.

Group of answer choices

N2

CO2

NaCl

H2O

Mg

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Question 15

Which of the following are ions?  Select all that apply.

Group of answer choices

C

Cl-

K+

Mg

Na

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Question 16

Match the different types of bonds with their example

Group of answer choices

bond formed between two water molecules

      [ Choose ]            hydrogen bond / ionic bond / covalent bond      

bond formed between K+ and Cl-

      [ Choose ]            hydrogen bond / ionic bond         /covalent bond      

bond formed by sharing electrons

      [ Choose ]            hydrogen bond            ionic bond            covalent bond      

bond formed between C and H in methane

      [ Choose ]            hydrogen bond            ionic bond            covalent bond      

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Question 17

The number of electrons in the valance shell determines the reactivity of an atom.

Group of answer choices

True

False

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Question 18

In this equation: 6 CO₂ + 6 H₂0 --->   C₆H₁₂O₆  +  6 O₂, name the reactants:

Group of answer choices

H2O

C6H12O6

C6H12O6 and O2

CO2 and H2O

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Question 19

A sulfur atom has 16 electrons. How many electrons are in its valence shell?

Group of answer choices

16

2

8

6

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Question 20

Match the biochemical building blocks with their role in the cell.

Group of answer choices

Proteins

      [ Choose ]            form membranes / direct cellular activity and synthesis of all cellular proteins. / form internal support and act as enzymes / provide energy and form specialized compounds      

Nucleic acids

      [ Choose ]            form membranes / direct cellular activity and synthesis of all cellular proteins. / form internal support and act as enzymes / provide energy and form specialized compounds      

Carbohydrates

      [ Choose ]            form membranes / direct cellular activity and synthesis of all cellular proteins. / form internal support and act as enzymes / provide energy and form specialized compounds      

Lipids

      [ Choose ]            form membranes / direct cellular activity and synthesis of all cellular proteins. / form internal support and act as enzymes / provide energy and form specialized compounds      

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Question 21

Biological molecules are polymers that are formed when ______ are joined by a ___________reaction.

Group of answer choices

Subunits, reduction

Monomers, hydrolysis

Monomers, dehydration synthesis

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Question 22

Quaternary structure occurs when a protein has

Group of answer choices

Folding and twisting of the secondary structure

More than one polypeptide

Pleated sheets

A sequence of amino acids

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Question 23

What type of reaction is represented in the diagram below?

Group of answer choices

hydrolysis

dehydration synthesis

anabolic

enzymatic

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Question 24

What molecule is represented by the “?” in the diagram below:

Group of answer choices

ATP

alcohol

water

enzymes

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Question 25

The diagram below represents

Group of answer choices

an amino acid

water

monomers

a polymer

glucose

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Question 26

Examples of the diagram below include (select all that apply)

Group of answer choices

starch

amino acids

proteins

fatty acids

glucose

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Question 27

The diagram below represents

Group of answer choices

proteins

water

RNA

a polymer

monomers

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Question 28

Examples of the diagram below include (select all that apply)

Group of answer choices

glucose

protein

amino acids

fatty acids

starch

Please do not forget to write down all the names of your group members.

1. Please propose the mechanism for α−β C-C bond cleavage of G6P. Draw the mechanism clearly, give the structures of the product, and then explain why steps 2 and 3 of glycolysis are necessary.

2. If glucose is labeled at C1 carbon (the C1 carbon is tagged with radioactive 14C), where would this labeled C atom be (which carbon atom number, draw the structure and label this carbon atom) when glucose has been metabolized to:

A. DHAP

B. GAP (you should be able to figure which carbon atom is the original C1 if you draw the mechanism of step 5)

C. After the reaction with G6PD enzyme (first step in pentose phosphate pathway)

D. After the oxidative decarboxylation step in PPP

E. How many % of the total pyruvate produced via glycolysis will carry this label?

3. A. What would be the fate of glucose in cells that need ATP, but not NADPH and R5P?

B. How about cells that need a lot of NADPH, but not R5P?

C. Finally, what would be the fate of glucose if the cells need a lot of R5P, but not NADPH?

Here are some hints to help you answer Q3.

1) Remember that the reactions in PPP (with the exception of the 3 in oxidative phase) are FULLY reversible.

2) Remember that glycolysis and PPP are linked by the common metabolites: F6P and GAP.

3) Although the stoichiometry of the reactions shown in class is different: glycolysis starts from 1 glucose molecule and PPP needs 3 G6P. In reality, our cells will always have more than 1 glucose molecule. 180 g of glucose (4.5 cans of soft drink) is 6.022 x 1023 molecules of glucose. Bottom line: to answer Q3, please do not worry about stoichiometry and whether there is enough glucose in the cells or not. There is truly plenty of glucose to go to any pathways as needed.

UPDATE: Question 2 refers to question 1

biochemisttry
2. (10 pts.) Hexokinase catalyzes the first reaction in glycolysis converting glucose to glucose 6-phosphate (G6P). This reaction, on its own (without the enzyme catalyst), has a ΔG’° = +13.8 kJ/mol, and is written as: Glucose + Pi → Glucose 6-phosphate + H2O The conversion of Glucose to G6P is dependent on the hydrolysis reaction of ATP to ADP, which has a ΔG’° = -30.5 kJ/mol, and is written as: ATP + H2O → ADP + Pi The overall conversion of Glucose to G6P, however, is a favorable reaction. This is possible by the coupling of the two reactions above. a. What do the sign and the value of ΔG’° for each reaction tell us about each of the reactions (6/10)? b. What are the two requirements for these reactions to be coupled (4/10)?

7.

During the development of a frog's fertilized egg, the following takes place:

	A.	Rapidly dividing cells lead to the formation of the "animal pole" in a region of the egg that is rich in amino acids and nucleic acids precursors.
	B.	Cells divide more slowly in the "vegetal pole" as they are located in a region of the egg richer in lipids with fewer amino acids and nucleic acid precursors.
	C.	In early stages of development, cells are dividing so fast that the embryo does not increase in volume.
	D.	All of the above

8.

1. Find the incorrect description.

   	A.	Light Microscopy — Usually has a resolution of 0.2 µm and a maximum magnification of 1000X. Light goes through the specimen. It usually requires staining of specimens (cells, tissue slices)
   	B.	Confocal Microscopy — Allows visualization of cells in three dimensions because it takes images in optical sections and integrates them using computer power.
   	C.	Atomic Force Microscopy — Similar in principle to light microscopy, but uses an electron beam instead of photons. Enlargement up to 106X and resolution of biological specimens about 1 nm.
   	D.	Fluorescence Microscopy — Excitation light is absorbed by fluorescent probes in the specimen and reemitted at a lower energy, i.e., a longer wavelength.

9.

1. During titration of glycine with HCl, what is the proportion of ⁺H₃N–CH₂–COO^– /⁺H₃N–CH₂–COOH at pKa₁?

   	A.	75%/25%
   	B.	0%/100%
   	C.	50%/50%
   	D.	25%/75%

11.

1. Consider the compound pairs below:

   1. HCHO, CH₃CHO (formaldehyde, acetaldehyde)
   2. CH₄, CH₃CH₃ (methane, ethane)
   3. HCOOH, CH₃COOH (formic acid, acetic acid)
   4. CH₃OH, CH₃CH₂OH (methanol, ethanol)
   5. CO₂, CO (carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide)

   What is their correct order, from the most oxidized to the most reduced?

   	A.	v > iii > i > iv > ii
   	B.	i > iv > ii > v > iii
   	C.	i > ii > iii > iv > v
   	D.	v > iv > iii > ii > i

1. Name a pancreatic hormone that stimulates gluconeogenesis and activates glycolysis.

2. Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate has what effects on glycolysis and gluconeogenesis?

	A.	Enhances glycolysis only.
	B.	Enhances gluconeogenesis only/
	C.	Inhibits glycolysis only
	D.	Inhibits gluconeogenesis only.
	E.	Enhances glycolysis/inhibits gluconeogenesis
	F.	Inhibits glycolysis/enhances gluconeogenesis

3. Under actual cellular conditions, how many strongly exergonic reactions take place in glycolysis?

4. The name of the cofactors that carries CO2 (carbon dioxide) in most biological reactions is:

Turkey (protein) has many essential amino acids such as tryptophan, threonine, isoleucine, lysine and phenylalanine.

Threonine is a large amino acid and will broken be down into two products: pyruvate and succinyl CoA which are then fed into the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain.

Phenylalalanine is broken down into acetyl CoA and fumarate and fed into the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain.

Mayonnaise (fatty acid) has omega 3 alpha linolenic acid (18:3Δ9,12,15) and omega 6 linoleic acid (18:2Δ9.12). (omega 6 or omega 3 refer to where the double bonds are located when counting from the omega end)

Lastly the bread contains carbohydrates: Glucose. Let's be healthy and assume wheat bread. (Assume aerobic respiration and assume glycerol phosphate shuttle).

For each component of the turkey sandwich follow it through catabolism. Do the calculations to determine how much energy is produced from each component listed. I want energy producing steps written out.

Fill in the blanks using (fatty acids, glycerol, sphingolipids, steriods, glycolipids, glycerophospholipid, triacylglycerols.)

Compounds that contain a fused ring system are called __________. These have three 6-membered rings and one 5-membered ring. Some of these compounds are found in biological membranes. _________ are the building blocks for many lipids, and they generally contain an even number of carbon atoms and an unbranched hydrocarbon chain. ________ are formed when a carbohydrate is glycosidically linked to a hydroxyl group of a lipid. Examples include gangliosides and cerebrosides. These are found in biological membranes. ________ are the storage form of lipids, accumulating in adipose tissue, and they can be used as metabolic fuel. These compounds have a polar part, made of three ester groups, and a nonpolar fatty acid tail. They behave as all nonpolar. ________ are made up of a long-chain amino alcohol joined, either by a glycosidic linkage and a phosphodiester linkage, to a fatty acid. These do not contain ______. They are abundant in the nervous system. When glycerol is esterfied to two fatty acids and a phosphoric acid molecule a _____ is formed. These are found in biological membranes.